Applications of Biotechnology :
1. Plant Biotechnology
2. Industrial Biotechnology
3. Genomics
4. Microbial Biotechnology
5. Environmental Biotechnology
6. Animal Biotechnology
Human protein Produced by rDNA technology to treat human disease
Health care Biotechnology
• It includes medicinal or diagnostic product or vaccine.
• This biotechnology offers patients a variety of new solutions such as organ transplant, stem
cell technology genetic counseling, forensic medicine and genetic finger printing.
Human Insulin-
• Insulin is a peptide harmone produced by β-cells of islets of langerhance of pancreas.
• It essential for control of blood sugar level.
• Due to deficiency of insulin Diabetes mellitus disease.
• Hakura et al (1977) chemically synthesised DNA sequence of insulin for two chains A and B and inserted into two PBR322 plasmid vector.
• The genes are inserted by the side of β-galactosidase gene of the plasmid.
• The recombinant plasmids transformed into E coli host.
• The host produces penicillinase + pre-pro insulin. Insulin then separated bu trypsin treatment.
Vaccine production-
• A vaccine is a biological preparation that provides active acquired immunity against a certain disease.
• It is often made from a weakend or killed form of the microorganisms, toxins or one of its surface protein antigens.
• Biotechnology made recombinant vaccines.
• Naked DNA vaccines, viral vector vaccines and plant-derived vaccines are found most effective
against bacterial and viral disorders.
Oral vaccines : a novel approach :
• The development of vaccine which can be taken orally.
• The person becomes vaccinated against certain pathogen. Such vaccines are also known as edible vaccines.
• Production of ‘melt in the mouth’ vaccines placing them under your tongue that delivers it into the blood stream.
• Example : The production of flu vaccine by Bacillus which melts in the mouth.
• Benefit of such vaccines, is comfort of administration, low cost and ease of storage.
• It helps in modifying plants, animals and microorganisms and improve their agricultural productivity.
• Tissue culture technique is best method for storing germplasm and maintaining a specific genetic type (Clone).
• This technique which produce recalcitrant seeds.
• Recalcitrant means the reduction in the seed moisture contents below certain levels and freezing drastically.
Gene therapy
• Gene therapy is the treatment of disease by replacing, altering or supplementing a gene that is absent or abnormal. C
Forms of Gene Therapy
a. Germ line gene therapy
Healthy genes can be introduced into germ cells like sperm, eggs, early embryos.
b. Somatic Cell Gene Therapy
Gene is introduced only in Somatic Cells like Bone marrow cells, hepatic cells, fibroblast
Endothelium CLS, pulmonary epithelial cells, endocrine cells.
Uses of Gene therapy
• Replace missing or defective genes.
• Destruction of cancer cells.
• Vaccination.
• Generation of immune response .
• Impairing viral replication.
• Growth of new tissue.
• Healing of damaged tissue. O
Delivery of genes into cells :
• Ex vivo delivery where cells are removed from the patients then gene is introduced e.g. Parkinsons disease.
• In vivo delivery genes are directly delivered at the target sites of the diseased tissue intravenous infusion genes are injected directly into tumor.
• Use of virosomes (Liposome + inactivated HIV), bionic chips are the other methods of gene delivery.
Genetically Modified Organisms (GMOs) :
• Living organisms whose genetic material artificially manipulated through genetic engineering.
• Produces combinations of plant, animal, bacteria and virus genes that do not occur in nature.
• GMOs increased yield, drought tolerance, enhanced nutrition, any other consumer benefit.
• Biotechnological approaches applied to plants create genetic variations that are beneficial for mankind.
• First transgenic plant produced tobacco.
• More then 60 transgenic dicot plants and several monocot plant like maize, oat, rice, wheat.
• Transgenic plants are bioreactors for molecular farming for production of novel drugs like interferons, edible vaccines, antibodies, amino acids, immunotherapeutic drugs, etc.
Advantages of GM food-plants-
a. Insect pest resistance
Bt cotton is one of the best transgenic plants known for its insect resistance property.
b. Improved nutritional qualities (biofortification) :
Transgenic plants have also been produced to provide functional food and neutraceuticals.
Transgenic rice (golden rice) and transgenic mustard (golden mustard) varieties that are high in vitamin A.
Reduce the diseases associated with vitamin A deficiency (VAD).
c. Modification in Post-harvest characteristics
Diseases and pests, Over-ripeness, loss of flavours and odours, etc.
Physiological changes are due to endogenous enzyme activity.
Genetic engineering has made it possible to slow down these activities.
e.g. Flavr savr tomatoes
d. Plants as factories
To produce biochemicals and vaccines, plants are bioreactors.
Some of the proteins that are produced by transgenic crop plants :
Human growth hormone the gene inserted into the chloroplast DNA of tobacco plants.
e. Transgenic plants producing edible vaccines :
Genetically altered plants can provide protection to infectious disease.
Plant products acting on vaccines.
Potatoes, tomatoes, bananas, soybeans, alfalfa and cereals are proposed for edible vaccine delivery.
An animal in which a deliberate modification of the genome.
Uses of transgenic animals :
• In medical research to identify the functions of specific factors
• In toxicology : (detection of toxicants)
• In mammalian developmental genetics
• In molecular biology analysis of gene expression
• In the pharmaceutical industry, production of pharmaceutical proteins, drug production.
• In biotechnology : producer of specific proteins
• Genetically engineered hormones
• Use in xenografting.
a. Transgenic mice and cancer research :
• Transgenic mice modified using a particular oncogene and developed certain type of cancer.
• Used for research into cancer treatment and prevention of malignancy.
• Philip Leder transgenic mouse model for the investigation of the breast cancer was developed.
• The oncogenes myc and ras were analysed to find out if they lead to breast cancer in mice transformed
with these gene.
b. Transgenic farm animals
• Farm animals are improved for their meat production, milk yields and quality, and disease-free status.
• Holstein cow provides 6,000 liters on average and up to 8,000 – 10,000.
• A hen laid about 70 eggs a year whereas today the best races lay up to 250 eggs per year.
Objectives
• Efficiency if meat production
• Improved quality of meat
• Milk quality and quantity
• Egg production
• Wool quality and quantity
• Disease resistance in animals
• Production of low-cost pharmaceuticals and biologicals.
c. Transgenic cattle for food production
• Researchers introduced additional copies of bovine beta or kappa casein into dairy cattle
• Transgenic offspring had on 8 to 20% increase in beta casein and a two-fold increase in kappa casein.
d. Transgenic cattle for human therapeutic production
• Transgenic cow supply of factor IX (plasma thromboplastin component) is used in the treatment of haemophilia.
• In 1990 Tracy, transgenic cow born in Scotland, produce a human protein in her milk for human therapeutics.
• To make a human antibody product, Cows are immunized with a vaccine containing the disease agent.
e. Transgenic Sheep
• Bacterial genes, cys E and cys M, are concerned with biosynthesis of cysteine amino acids involved in formation of keratin protein found in wool.
• Both these genes are identified, cloned and introduced in sheep to increase wool production and to improve the quality of wool.
f. Transgenic pigs
• A pig’s heart is about the same size as a human heart, and pig heart valves have been used in human heart surgery.
• The pig providing animal organs and tissues for human transplants (xenotransplantation).
g. Transgenic fish
• Atlantic salmon, catfish, goldfish, Tilapia, zebra-fish, common carp, rainbow trout, etc are transfected with growth hormone, chicken crystalline protein and E coli hygromycin resistance gene.
• Transgenic fish showed increased cold tolerance and improved growth quantity and quality of fish proteins.
h. Transgenic chicken
• Resistance to viral and coccidial diseases, better feed efficiency, lower fat and cholesterol levels and high protein containing eggs, and better meat quantity.
Bioethics
• Bioethics helps to study moral vision, decision and policies of human behaviour in relation to biological phenomena or events.
• Ethics deals with vitro fertilization, sperm bank, gene therapy, cloning, gene manipulations, euthanasia, death.
• Ethics in biotechnology also includes the general subject of what should and should not be done in using recombinant DNA techniques.
Effects of Biotechnology on the Environment
a. Herbicide Use and Resistance
• Effects on the environment are a particular with regard to GMO crops and food production.
• Herbicide increased a larger negative effect on the surrounding environment.
b. Effects on Untargeted Species
• Bt corn, has adverse effects on Monarch butterfly populations.
Effects of Biotechnology on Human Health
a. Allergies
• GMO crops could potentially negative effects on human health.
• E.g. Researchers used gene from the Brazil nut to increase the production of Methionine in soya beans.
• Caused allergic reactions to the soya bean.
b. Long – Term Effects
• GMO technology cause long-term effects on health.
c. New Proteins
• Proteins that have never been ingested before by humans are now part of the foods.
d. Food Additives
• GMOs introducing additional nutrients into foods.
• There is possibility of the creation of antibiotic and vaccine-resistant strains of diseases.
Biopatent and Biopiracy
a. Biopatent
• Patent is a special right granted to the inventor by the goverment.
• Biopatent is a biological patent.
• Indian patent allows ‘process patent’ and not the ‘product patent’.
• First biopatent was genetically engineered bacterium ‘Pseudomonas’ used for clearing oils spills.
b. Biopiracy
• Biopiracy is defined as ‘theft of various natural products and then selling them by getting patent without giving any benefits or compensation back to the host country’.
• The act of Piracy is unauthorized publication or reproduction of another person’s work or material.
Examples of Biopiracy
• Patenting of Neem (Azadirachta indica)
• Patenting of Basmati
• Haldi (Turmeric) Biopiracy
Examples of Biopiracy :
Patenting of Neem (Azadirachta indica) :
The people of India in a variety of ways have used neem, since time immemorial. Indians have shared the knowledge of the properties of the neem with the entire world.
Pirating this knowledge, the USDA and an American MNC W.R. Grace in the early 90s sought a patent from the European Patent Office (EPO) on the “method for controlling on plants by the aid of hydrophobic extracted neem oil.” The patenting of the fungicidal properties of Neem, was an example of biopiracy.
Patenting of Basmati :
Basmati is a long-grained, aromatic variety of rice indigenous to the Indian subcontinent.
In 1997 the US Patent and Trademark Office (USPTO) granted a patent to a Texas based American company Rice Tec Inc for “Basmati rice line and grains” having trade name Texmati. The patent application was based on 20 very broad claims on having “invented” the said rice. Due to peoples movement against Rice Tec in March 2001, the UPSTO has rejected all the claims.
Haldi (Turmeric) Biopiracy :
Two American researchers of Indian origin of the University of Mississippi Medical Center, put a claim to the US Patent and Trademark Office, maintaining that they had discovered haldi's healing properties. Surprisingly, they were granted a patent in March 1995 for something you had known for years and our ayurvedas for centuries.
It meant they had exclusive rights over any such haldi drug and were in a position to make millions of dollars. The Council of Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR) applied to the US Patent Office for a reexamination and they realized the mistake and cancelled the patent.
This was after Indian scientists shouted from rooftops about how we are losing our traditional knowledge to marauding foreign companies who have started poaching on our ancient healing techniquesIt is the need of hour to launch genetic literacy movement in Indian school and colleges for better understanding of opportunities and risks related to biotechnology and also to promote the safe and meaningful use of technologies of modern life sciences.