HUMAN HEALTH AND DISEASES
Dengue :
Dengue fever
is a painful,
debilitating vector borne disease, caused by any one of four closely
related dengue viruses.
Dengue virus is
transmitted through the
bite of female
Aedes mosquito.
The mosquito
takes up the
dengue virus when it sucks blood of a person suffering from dengue.
It can
not spread directly
from one person to another person
Cancer:
Abnormal, uncontrolled
and purposeless division of
cells may lead
to the formation/ development of mass of undifferentiated
cells
i.e. tumor.
When tumor is
malignant, it is described as cancer and has ability to
invade other tissues.
Cancer harms
the body when
cancerous cells divide uncontrollably to form new lumps or masses
of tissue called
neoplasm (except in the
case of leukemia).
Tumors can
grow and interfere with
the normal functioning
of various organs.
They also
release secretions which alter
body function(s).
It is
one of the
main killer diseases nowadays.
Physicians
and researchers who specialize in the study, diagnosis,
treatment and prevention of cancer are called oncologists
Tumors may develop
anywhere in the body. However, all tumors are not
cancerous.
There are
two types of
tumors:
1)Benign or
Nonmalignant Tumor :
It grows
slowly, may attain
quite a large size, but it remains restricted to the
site of its origin (localized) and does not spread to other part of the body.
This does not necessarily mean that the
benign tumors are
not troublesome. Some benign
tumors are harmful
and fatal
e.g. brain
tumor (A brain
tumor may cause death because the brain is squeezed
against the hard skull). Moreover, the benign tumors may sometimes become
malignant. e.g. Adenoma and Fibroid.
2)Malignant tumor or
cancer :
The growth rate of this
tumor is rapid and mortality rate is
comparatively more than benign tumor.
Rapid growth of tumors
causes overcrowding and disruption
of normal cells.
The cancerous cells compete
with the normal cells for nutrients and finally kill them.
These cells are spread from one organ to other via blood or lymph and form new tumors called secondary tumors. This migratory process is called metastasis.
Benign and Malignant Tumor
Types of Cancer:
There are
five main types
of cancers according to the type
of tissue affected. Cancers are named according to the tissue from which they
arise.
1)Carcinoma:
Cancer that arise from
epithelial tissue covering or lining the body organs is known as carcinoma. It
include breast cancer, lung cancer, cancer of stomach, skin cancer. etc.
2)Sarcoma:
Cancer that arises from
connective tissue is called sarcoma. It include bone tumors (osteosarcoma),
muscle tumors (myosarcoma), cancer of cartilage (chondrosarcoma) and cancer of
adipose tissue (liposarcoma
3)Lymphoma:
Cancer that arises from
lymphatic tissue, is called lymphoma. It occurs in the lymphatic nodes, spleen and
tissues of immune system.
4)Leukemia:
It is a type of blood cancer in which there is
excessive formation of white blood cells (WBCs) or leucocytes in the bone
marrow
People suffering from
leukemia have very high leucocyte count.
The blood contains millions
of abnormal immature WBCs or leucocytes that are incapable of fighting
infections.
There are various types of
leukemia such as monocytic leukemia, lymphoblastic leukemia etc.
Adenocarcinomacancer
arises in thyroid, pituitary adrenal and other glandular tissues
Causes of Cancer:
Although, it is still not
very clear as to how the cancer is
caused, several factors
are now known to be cancer-
causing i.e. carcinogenic.
These factors are as
follows.
1.Chemicals :
Several chemicals are known to induce cancer.
These include nicotine, caffeine, products of
combustion of coal and oil.
Several polycyclic
hydrocarbons, some sex hormone and steroids,
if given or secreted in large
amounts, may cause cancer.
Breast cancer seems to
have hormonal relationship. It is more commonly observed in women who avoid
breast feeding.
2.Radiation :
The x-rays, gamma-rays
cosmic rays, ultra-violet rays etc. are carcinogenic. Incidence of skin cancer
is higher in the people working in very sunny areas due to UV radiation in the
sunlight.
3.Viruses :
Viruses causing cancer
have genes called viral oncogenes (v-onc genes).
These viruses
are also called
oncogenic viruses. e.g. EBV(Epstein-barr virus), HPV (Human papiloma
virus) etc.
4.Oncogenes :
Several genes called cellular oncogenes (c-onc
genes) or proto-oncogenes have been identified in normal cells which when
activated under certain condition could lead to oncogenic transformation of
cells.
5.Addiction :
Different types addictions likes smoking, chewing of tobacco lead to cancer of mouth, lips and lungs. Alcohol consumption may result in cancer of oesophagus, stomach, intestine and liver. Drugs also cause cancer e.g. Marijuana, anaerobic steroids etc.
Treatment of Cancer:
Cancer treatment consists
of combination of a number of therapies which are follows:
1.Chemotherapy:
Chemotherapy comprises administration of
certain anticancer drugs.
The anticancer drugs check
cell division by inhibiting DNA synthesis or are more toxic to cancerous cell
than to normal cells.
Chemotherapy may lead to
hair loss or anaemia
2.Radiotherapy:
It is used in addition to
chemotherapy.
In radiotherapy, the basic
principle is to bombard the cancerous tissue or cells with the rays from
radioactive materials.
For treatment, the cancer
tissue or cells are exposed to radiations from radioactive materials such as
cobalt, iridium and iodine.
The rays x-rays gamma rays
and charge particles are used to destroy the cancerous tissue or cells but
cause minimum damage to the surrounding normal tissue or cells.
eatment is stopped.
3.Surgery:
In surgery, the entire
cancerous tissue or cells are removed surgically. It has limited utility.
In certain cases such as
breast tumor or uterine tumor, the surgery is most effective, but other
treatments are also given to kill any cancerous cell that may have been escaped
in surgery.
Tumor cell have been shown to avoid detection
and destruction by immune system.
Therefore, the patients
are given substances called biological response modifiers such as α-interferon
which activates their immune system and helps in destroying the tumor.
5.Supportive therapy:
Supportive therapy is used
to treat symptoms of cancer and side effects of cancer treatments.
Objective of this therapy is to improve the quality of life of cancer patient. This therapy varies depending upon condition of individual patient
It is
the period of
begining with the appearance of
secondary sexual characters and the termination with
ceassation of somatic
i.e. body
growth. It can
also be regarded
as a transitional stage
of physical and
mental development of child
occurring between puberty and
the legal adulthood between 10 to 19 years of age where individual is no loger
a child but not yet an adult.
Adolescence in fact is a
phase rather than fixed time period
in the life.
It
is a phase
ofdevelopment on many
fronts like sexual
and reproductive maturity, mental
development, adult identity and
transition from socio- economic and emotional dependant to
relative independence.
Stages of Adolescence :
Adolescents are
defined are individual
10 to 19 year age group. The
government of India in its National youth
policy defines adolescents as 13-19 years.
Adolescents is divided in
three stage
viz. early
stage, middle stage
and late stage.
1)Early period (10 to
14 years) :
The changes
include begining of
the appearance of secondary
sexual characters growth reaches
to its peak;
rapid physical growth; concrete
thinking; defining boundries of dependence/independence; self
exploration; developing body image; development of intense friendship; seeking
to counter instability
and evaluation.
2)Middle period (15 to
17 years) :
It is characterized
by almost complete full development of
secondary sexual characteristic; growth
slows down, approximately
95 % of the adult stature is attained; thinking is
more abstract; concrete thinking
under stressful conditions; reestablishing of
body image capable of
long range thinking; sense
of leadership and all
powerfulness; preoccupied
with romantic fantacy;
ability testing to attract opposite sex, peer group help
defining behavioral code etc.
3)Late period (18 to 19
years) :
It is characterized by
establishment of total physical maturity established abstract thinking,
intellectual and functional identity;
peer group recedes in favor
of individual relationship, stable relationship and change
from childhood to adulthood relationship
Physical changes of
adolescence :
Growth spurt-
occurs in both boys and girls. In boys muscles
develop, skin become oily, broadening of shoulders cracking of voice,
development of underarm and chest hair, pubic hair, facial hair, enlargement of
penis and testis.
In girls development of breast, widening of
hip, development of underarm and pubic hair, enlargement of uterus and ovaries.
Sex organs mature and
enlarge, sexual desire, errection of penis in boys, sperm production,
ejaculation, ovulation, menstruation and initiation of sexual behaviour.
Emotional and social
changes :
This include establishing
own identity, fantacy, day dreaming, attention seeking behavior, emotional
instability full of energy, sexual attraction.
Rapid mood changes conflicts with family,
behavioural code (influence by peer group) self exploration and evaluation,
formation of new relationship, peer pressure etc
Mental Health and
Adolesence:
Many of the emotional and
social changes have implication on the mental health.
Most of the mental
health issues that
people confront as adults begin
to appear in adolescence
The mental health
implication includes confusion irritation, moodiness,
frustration, nausea, less concentration, hyper
activities, anger, effects on life styles like obesity,
addictions, accidents, leading to ill health etc.
The mental illness in
fact is in terms of different forms of
depression like insomnia and loss of energy.
Thus, mental
illness (disorders or unfavourable changes)
is associated with psychological or behaviour manifestation.
These are broadly classified
as either psychoses or neuroses. Psychoses
include delusions,
hallucinations, distrubance in
the thinking process, etc.
The psychoses lead to
Alzheimer’s disease schizophrenia, depressive
psychosis, etc.
Amnesia
(loss of memory)
Bullimia (extreme over indulgence in food) Anxiety (fear or
appretension) Anorexia nervosa (emotional aversion to food) depression
(sadness, inactivity reduced to enjoy
life, etc.)
Neuroses include schizophrenia, illusions, hallucination,
etc. Adolescence is thus
characterized by number of
cognitive, emotional, behavioural, physical and
attitudinal changes which
may lead to positive
personality development
depending upon the relation with parents or to other conditions, to conflicts
to others side.
In fact they
view their friends
peer group more important and
influential than their
parents. This may lead
to various kinds
of addictions like smoking,
taking drugs, etc.
Treatment :
Treatment of
such disorders should
be preferentially with non-pharmacological approch with due
respect to rights of children.
WHO
has recommended evidence
based guidelines under mental
health Gap Action Programme (mhGAP).
Addiction :
This is a complex
condition characterised by
compulsive use of
substance despite of its
harmful consequences. Addiction
may involve the use
of substances (drugs)
such as alcohol, opioids,
cocaine, nicotine and others or behaviours such as gambling.
There is
scientific evidence that
the addictive behaviours share key neurobiological features. They
intensely involve brain pathways of
reward and reinforcement, affecting motivation,
which involve
the neurotransmitter
dopamine.
It
is important to know
that the neurological
changes are reversible after the
substance-use or behaviour is discontinued.
Addiction overall result
in the impairment of physical, physiological
and psychological functions of
the body.
Methods /measures to
control drug abuse :-
1)Always remember
‘Prevention is better than cure’.
2)Avoid undue pressure – A
child should not be forced to perform beyond his /her capacities in studies,
sports and other activities.
3)Education and
Counselling of child to face problems and stress, to accept
disappointments and failures
as a part of
life.
4)Channelize the
energy of child in
sports, studies and
other constructive activities.
Surveys and
statistics show that
use of drugs and
alcohol has been
on the rise especially among
the youth.
This is
really a cause of
concern as it
could result in
many harmful effects. Proper education and guidance would enable
youth to safeguard
themselves against these dangerous behaviour pattern and follow healthy
lifestyle.
The drugs, which are
commonly abused, are opioids, cannabinoids and alkaloids of coca.
a)Opioids :
These drugs
binds to opioid
receptors present in central nervous system and gastro- intestinal tract.
Heroin, otherwise called smack is chemically di-acetyl
morphine. It is extracted from latex
of poppy plant Papaver
somniferum. Heroin is depressent and slows down the activity of body.
b)Cannabinoids :
Interact with
receptors present in
brain. Inhalation and ingestion
of these substances affect the
cardiovascular system. These
are obtained from inflorescences and the parts of Cannabis sativa.
Marijuana, hashish, charas and
ganja are other
different forms of
drugs obtained from this plant.
c)Cocain :
This is
an alkaloid obtained
from coca plant- Erythroxylum coca.
It increases
level of
neurotransmitter-dopamine.
Its excessive dosage causes
extreme happiness, irritability, paranoia.
d)Hallucinogens (mind expanding drugs) :
These are alkaloids
causing day-dreaming. Lycergic acid and cannabis are hallucinogenic
substances.
Atropa
bellodona and Datura spp. also
have hallucinogenic properterties. Hallucination are unreal
perceptions of unreal object due to the disorder of nervous system.
Addiction and
Dependence :
Because of
the perceived benefits, drugs are used repeatedly.
The most important thing,
which one fails to realize, is the inherent addictive nature of alcohol and
drugs.
Addiction is a psychological attachment to
certain effects such as euphoria and a temporary feeling of well-being
–associated with drugs and alcohol.
These drive
people to take
them even when these
are not needed,
or even when
their use becomes self-destructive.
With repeated
use of drugs, the
tolerance level of
the receptors present in our body
increases
Consequently the
receptors respond only to higher
doses of drugs or alcohol leading to
greater intake and
addiction.
However, it should
be clearly borne
in mind that
use of these drugs even once, can
lead to addiction.
In the absence of any
guidance or counselling, the person
gets addicted and
becomes dependent on their
use.
Dependence is
the tendency of the
body to manifest
a characteristic and unpleasant withdrawal
syndrome if regular dose of drugs/ alcohol is abruptly
discontinued.
This is
characterized by anxiety,
trembling, nausea and sweating,
which may be
relieved when use is resumed.
Effects of Drug/
Alcohol Abuse :
The immediate adverse
effects of drugs and alcohol abuse are manifested in the form of reckless
behaviour, vandalism and violence.
Excessive doses of drugs
may lead to coma and death due to respiratory failure, heart failure or
cerebral hemorrhage.
A combination of drugs
or their
intake along with
alcohol generally results in
overdose and even deaths.
The most common warning
signs of drug and alcohol abuse among youth include drop in academic performance,
unexplained absence from
school/college, lack of interest in personal hygiene, withdrawal,
isolation, depression,
fatigue, aggressive and
rebellious behaviour,
deteriorating relationships with
family and friends, loss
of interest in
hobbies, change in sleeping
and eating habits,
fluctuations in weight,
appetite, etc.
There may
even be some
far-reaching implications
of drug/alcohol abuse.
If an abuser is
unable to get
money to buy drugs/
alcohol he/she may
turn to crime.
At times, a drug/alcohol
addict becomes the
cause of mental and financial
distress to his/her entire family and friends
Those who take drugs
intravenously (direct injection
into the vein
using a needle
and syringe) are likely to acquire serious infections like HIV and
hepatitis B. Use of alcohol during adolescence
may also have
long-term effects like loss
balance, liver cirrhosis, pancreatitis. It could lead to heavy drinking in
adulthood.
Chronic use of drugs and
alcohol damages nervous system and
liver (cirrhosis). Use of
drugs and alcohol during pregnancy adversely affects the foetus. Another misuse
of drugs is
that certain sports persons
use drugs to
enhance performance.
They missuse
narcotic analgesics,
anabolic steroids, diuretics
and certain hormones to
increase muscle strength and
bulk and to
promote aggressiveness and overall
improvement in their
performance.
Side-effects of
the use of
anabolic steroids in females
include masculinization (features like males),
increased aggressiveness, moodswings, depression, abnormal menstrual
cycles, excessive hair growth
on the face
and body, enlargement of
clitoris, deepening of voice
In males
it includes acne,
increased aggressiveness, mood swings, depression, and reduction of
size of the
testicles, decreased sperm
production, kidney and liver dysfunction, breast enlargement, premature
baldness, enlargement of the prostate gland.
These effects may be
permanent with prolonged use.
Prevention and Control
:
The age-old
adage (i.e. proverb)
is ‘prevention is better
than cure’ holds true
for all addictions.
It is also true that habits such as smoking,
taking drug or alcohol are more likely to
be taken up
at a young
age, more during adolescence.
It is best to identify the
situations that push an adolescent towards use of drugs or alcohol, and to take
remedial measures well in time.
In this regard, the parents and theteachers have a special responsibility